Giant impact theory Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Giant impact theory - Assignment Example Grains of dust collided and formed bigger objects known as planetesimals. During collisions, many planetesimals break up during collision but the larger ones survive and become protoplanets and later planets. If these planetesimals had remained stationary, the solar system would be made of thousands of small objects such as planetesimals without any planets. Life would have been possible in small objects. Alternatively, planets would have been small. The third scenario is solar system would have formed. Larger planets have more internal heat to lose compared to smaller planets. In addition, there is proportionally smaller surface area to lose the heat from. The larger the planet, the bigger the less the surface are per unit volume. Small worlds or planets cool faster than the big world. When the planets completely cool off, they become geologically dead (Seeds, Michael and Backman 15). Planet earth is yet to cool of completely and this means it is geologically active. Activities taking place at the core of the earth are responsible for volcanism, movement of tectonic plates, cratering and others. Bigger plants are more geologically active. If rotation is faster, geologic activities

How has the debt problem in Europe envolved Essay

How has the debt problem in Europe envolved - Essay Example The EU market was lending to Ireland, Greece and Portugal at a rate that was at par with the one offered to Germany in 2008. The assumption at this point in time being that the Euro could never at any one given point break up and as a result, each and every country within the region was taken to be as safe as Germany- which had been considered to be the safest. For a very long time, Germany benefitted from the Euro zone crisis. The country had very low interest rates that made it even easier for the government to borrow more, thus creating a demand for more personal loans. The European Commercial Bank (ECB) even purchased German government bonds. Germany was seen to be the safe haven in European economics. Interest rates in the country had been going down since the start of the first symptoms of the crisis (Broyer, Peterson and Schneider 2012, p.2). . This was a part crisis how had the country performed before? Was it over heating? If no why? Following this assumption, Greece did acc umulate almost 145% of its gross domestic product (GDP) as gross debt, a figure that was by far beyond what the country was capable of producing within a period of about one year and six months. As the crisis was progressing into its third year, it was not clear whether or not it would culminate in bringing to an end the straightening out or further accelerate the continent’s six-decade progress toward slow but sure confederacy, as Europe staggered between the currency’s (Euro) break up and the measurably stouter measures that would pave way for tighter political and fiscal bonds (Ernst & Young 2012, p.1). The move towards a single economic region, as adopted by the European Union in the unveiling of the Euro currency is informed by the optimum currency area theory. Presented by Robert Mundell, the theory outlines the features of a new currency developed after several currencies have merged. It deals with the currency of a region as opposed to that of a country; a part icular region, larger than a particular country has to share a currency (Mundell 1961, pp. 658). In essence, the theory seeks to set out the maximum number of currencies that can be used in one particular region. The theory has enabled the close study of the many economic features that are key pillars in monetary unions. What does the theory say should happen? In spring 2010, Greece was not in a position of borrowing on the open markets at reasonably priced interest rates; a bailout package amounting to 110 billion Euros was devised by the European Union, International Monetary Fund and the European Central Bank. As an act of pay back Greece was required to cut down on its public spending by a quantifiable amount. In May 2010, the European countries’ government leaders made an approval of a contingency fund totalling to 500 billion Euros for the Union at large. In November 2010, Ireland did wrack a banking crisis after the collapse of a housing bubble and was in receipt of a bailout amounting to 6 billion Euros. Portugal, on her side, received 78 billion Euros as a result of a long-term economic laggard (Wharton 2012,

Current Recession Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Current Recession - Essay Example Most of the countries depend on the resources and facilities from other neighboring countries. But this downfall has stopped exchange among the continents. Recession has created an impact on the banking sector, financial institutions and other credit related industries. Recession has occurred in the past also, but was not so severe like the present recession. The financial crisis started in America and then prevailed to the other countries. This in turn affected the development in all the countries. Though the previous recessions has incurred loss and lead to unemployment, this time it has been more than the previous recession. There is a dramatic increase in the unemployment rate and this has lead to the increase in debts. Financial stability has gone down which left many companies at a sad state. Financial policies should suit the current recession and must help in improving the financial crisis. Government has taken measures to improve the financial situation.(Nigam 2009). As the financial industries were the worst hit by recession, the companies which were depending on those financial services went down immediately. Economic depression has been prevailing from the downfall and it is still in the improvement state. Although most of the financial concerns tried to overcome the During this recession, many new policies and strategies were introduced by the government to improve the situation of the industries as well as the economy. Established concerns and the ones with a better financial background only survive the recession. Other small and financially not so strong companies had to wind up their business.(Burgan 2002). As they could not bear the recession and its effects, many people were pushed out of their job. Out of the various policies, only some could help in improving the current situation. One among them is Keynesian policy, which mainly concentrated on the economic status. Keynes introduced a system which had a simple and basic strategy.

Develop an Adroid app or iPhone app; Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Develop an Adroid app or iPhone app; - Essay Example The version of Java that is used in developing mobile applications is Java Rosa (Meier 75). An android application will have the entire file that will entail the source code of the application. The SDK tools for Android makes it easier to start a new Android application. The SDK tools will the libraries and the requirements that you will need to develop an Android application. The GUI development environment that will be used is Eclipse. To start a new Android project, you click on New Android Project. This icon should be available in the toolbar. If this is missing, then it means that the plug-in has not been installed. After this, fill in the forms that appear in the wizard. The application name is the name of the application. After this, click next and in the next screen, you will see the tools that you will help in having a launcher icon for the application. This is where you will customize the icon so that the various densities can be supported. After this, you select the template that you will start building you project on. The next step will require some additional settings but it is recommended that all the default settings be left the way they are. You can also use the command line to run the application (Meier 72). Running of the application will need that you have an Android powered device. Another option of running the project is by using the Eclipse IDE. In order to install the application in a real device, it is important to be aware of some codes that will assist in this. One of such is AndroidManifest.xml. This file defines the various components if the application project (Meier 64). To install and run the application in an Android powered device, there will be a need to have a connection between the computer and the device. The connection is provided by use of USB cable. Connect the USB cable with computer and enable debugging mode. To run the application from

Parental Involvement, Poverty, and Student Achievement Essay Example for Free

Parental Involvement, Poverty, and Student Achievement Essay Current education reform is intended to influence higher student achievement. According to Hanushek (1997), the development of school reform is largely motivated by economic issues. Education reform becomes a meaningful topic on the national agenda when the National Commission on Excellence in Education issued a report, A Nation At Risk (1983). This report focused on the claim that a steady increase in mediocrity had overcome schools which impacted upon the economic competitiveness of the country. One example of this competitiveness was when the Soviet Union 1957 launched Sputnik. It was concluded that declines in educational performance were in large part the result of inadequacies in the way the educational process was conducted. The findings that follow, selected from a much more extensive list, reflect four important aspects of the educational process: content, expectations, time, and teaching. The United States government responded by beginning reform of how its educational system. As part of this process, all segments, including parent committees, were formed to give attention to the implementation of the recommendations of the report. The report further stated that reform should not only come from students, teachers, school boards, colleges and universities, local, state, and federal officials, teachers’ and administrators’ organizations, but also from parents themselves with interested in and responsibility for educational significance begin with the parent. Moreover, you bear a responsibility to participate actively in your child’s education. You should encourage more diligent study and discourage satisfaction with mediocrity and the attitude that says let it slide, monitor your child’s study; encourage good study habits; encourage your child to take more demanding rather than less demanding courses; nurture your child’s curiosity, creativity, and confidence; and be an active participant in the work of the schools. Above all, exhibit a commitment to continued learning in your own life. Finally, help your children understand that excellence in education cannot be achieved without intellectual and moral integrity coupled with hard work and commitment (p. 26) Henderson and Berla (1994) did extensive research linking parental involvement to student achievement. There are a variety of parenting practices that have been associated with positive student outcomes. Despite this research, Desimone (2001) contends that there is still no clear understanding of how patterns and effects of parental involvement differ across ethnic and income groups. Previous studies have shown that parent involvement patterns vary according to parental social, racial-ethnic, and economic characteristics (Catsambis Garland, 1997), but the findings have been mixed. Several studies have reported that low income minority parents often have different beliefs about parents’ role in school involvement are less involved in school activities than higher income, non-minority parents (Delgado-Gaitan, 1991; Chavkin Williams, 1993). Other studies, however, have demonstrated that the level of parent involvement by race-ethnicity (i. e. , Asian, African-American, Hispanic, and white) differs for only a few types of involvement and that minority parents have higher levels of involvement in certain areas than do white parents (Catsambis Garland, 1997). Previous studies have reported that low-income minority parents often have different beliefs regarding parental roles in school involvement and are less involved (Chavkin Williams, 1993). Comer and Haynes (1991) have hypothesized that low income and inner city minority students may be more positively affected by certain types of parent involvement than other students. According to them, in order for parental involvement programs to be successful, they need to be focused upon a school improvement process that is designed to create positive relationships that support the total development of children and not the traditional bureaucratic or authoritative school environment which is a less collaborative structure. Other theorists (Devaney, Ellwood, and Love, 1997; Lewit, Terman, Behrman, 1997) suggests that parental involvement may not be as effective in improving student achievement for low income children as for children from middle class homes. Because the large number of risk factors that impact upon children living in poverty, including health, safety, and housing, the role of parental involvement in schools in explaining academic outcomes for those children may be significantly less than for their peers who do not experience as many negative environment influences. Desimone (2001) suggests that race-ethnicity and other background characteristics can be strong mediators in the effects of various types of parental actions and the impact they have on student achievement. While work in this area is limited, there is little information that compares the effects of multiple forms of parental involvement across several racial/ethnic and income groups. McNeal’s (2001) study investigated the relationships between parent involvement and socioeconomic status. Findings indicated that parental involvement was an important factor in explaining behavioral outcomes (such as truancy and dropping out) but not cognitive outcomes (such as science achievement), with the greatest support for parent child discussion and involvement in parent-teacher organizations. He contends that there have been inconsistencies with the findings linking parental involvement to academic achievement. The contradictions likely were related to one of the following weaknesses in research. The first condition was the use of perception measures by teachers rather than direct reports by students and/or parents. Another was a failure to fully conceptualize parent involvement into its constituent parts. The last was not fully assessing the extent to which parental involvement differently affects academic achievement by social class. The three shortcomings can be improved upon but parent involvement has little effect on student achievement because it is a cognitive outcome and parental involvement affects behavioral outcomes. Reginald Clark’s research shares findings from a body of research on closing achievement gaps in urban school communities (Ferguson, Clark, Stewart, 2002). In Clark documents the importance of five influential factors for improved students achievement, especially among disadvantages urban students. The first factor is described as the teacher’s expectations and actions in the classroom. The second is amount of students’ weekly participation in high-yield in and out of school activities. High-yield out of school activities include: leisure reading, writing, studying, and participation in community and school clubs or programs, and playing organized sports. High-yield in school activities include participating in classroom lessons as well as structured leisure activities. The third factor is the quality of students’ participation in and out of school activities. The fourth factor is parental beliefs and expectations. The fifth factor is parent-teacher communication. Ferguson, Clark and Stewart, 2002 found that the type and amounts of constructive in school and out of school learning activities contribute to a success-oriented lifestyle. More specifically, Clark found that high achieving activities. Some examples of actions in the classroom include reading, working alone on a lesson, listening to a lecture, solving a problem with classmates, or asking questions. Ferguson, Clark and Stewart, 2002 found that high achievers spent more time during out of school high-yield learning activities than low achievers. Some activities include: weekly time dialoguing with adults, hobby or volunteer activities, or organized sports. Regular study and homework routines, with adult monitoring or support, and reading and writing activities also were seen as practices in the home. Some less structured or unstructured activities include hanging out, playing video games, talking on the telephone, and watching television. Ferguson, Clark and Stewart 2002 found that the beliefs and attitudes of parents had a significant role in student success in becoming competent readers. The analysis of data from parents of 459 students about their expectations for their child’s learning and their perception of whether they had been supported by their child’s teacher showed that students benefit when parents set high standards for their child’s performance in school and feel personally supported by partnerships they have formed with their child’s teacher. Lastly, Clark indicates that parent beliefs are likely to be influenced by parent-teacher communication. In other words, parents may benefits from well-organized teacher-led communications. When teachers take specific actions to cultivate instructional partnerships with parents, those parents are more likely to support their children’s learning at home. Clark’s data showed that students’ scores were higher on the Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment in reading when teachers reported more communication with parents. REFERENCES Bankston, C. L. , Caldas, S. J. (1998). Family structure, schoolmates, and racial inequalities in school achievement. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 715-723. Braswell. J. S. , Lutkus,A. D. , Grigg,W. S. , Santapau, S. L. , Tay-Lim, B. , Johnson, M. (2001). Subgroup results for the nation and the states. In The nations report card: Mathematics 2000 (pp. 53-181). Washington DC: U. S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics.

Ganga Project Essay Example for Free

Ganga Project Essay Born in the lap of the Himlayas, I have been flowing towards the sea for ages, through hills and valleys and planes by earning love and good wishes of all whom I meet on my long way. I am a river, a dancing maid, who knows not how to tarry for a while. When I was given this eternal flow I remember not, and when it will end is a mystery to me. This much I know that I was given my birth to serve the earth with her animate or inanimate creations. My life is a dedicated one, meant to purify the filth of the earth. I wash and carry away the polluted articles, such as the smelly corpses of men and beasts, the wastages of oils and chemicals of the mills, and the excretory refuse of the towns and villages-all sorts of dirty accumulations from my both the banks. Still with a gay heart, I run and jump and sing my murmuring song, as I pass through the green paddy fields, dense forests or thickly populated inhabitations. The sky overhead protects me with its endless roof; the sun gives me his brightest rays, while the moon plays with me the game of tides : ebb and flow; the passing clouds shower their secret treasures on my hidden heart to make me happy. I give shelter to the fishes and the aquatic animals; I give company to the innocent boatmen; I enjoy the music of the birds flying in the blue sky above, or settling on the flowing water-hyacinths on my broad bed . I welcome the soft rays of the setting sun that creates a beautiful glare on my little ripples, when the wind blows slowly. With sun rays I look different at day, and with moon rays mystic at night. I live and will live to continue my eternal journey with my ever youthful heart. River Ganges is a massive river in India, where Im from. So as a part of the Environment Contest, I write this piece Life as a river aint easy, especially when you start from an glacier which refuses to stop melting. Ganges here, River Ganges . . . I figure you might have heard of me sometime or the other. And yes, I am openly envied by all my other river-sisters. They’re pretty jealous actually, thinking of me as perennial, and never ending and all that rubbish. Well let’s get something straight like a strait, life as a river ain’t easy. I’m old, let me tell you that. So old that I forgot when I began, and I don’t forget. I remember when the President took a nice cruise over me in 2009. I can tell you that it was 29th August. Well enough of that, now where were we? Yeah, I’m old. I began when several glaciers started melting. I had fresh water, and a faint smell of lilies were all there was to me. All along my banks, civilization began, trees grew, houses were built, families were made, and myths about me were told to one and all. I was worshipped by almost everyone. And that’s when it got horrible. I began to get bathed in; they thought that by bathing in me, they’d get â€Å"pure† souls and â€Å"peaceful† courses to Heaven. All the good it did them, they could’ve just taken a bath with normal water. They sure were satisfied with themselves, but I, I was left to accept murky, sweaty, disgusting human bodies dousing themselves in me, and occasionally, defecating in me. But still, no one cared, and the other rivers, they only got more envious. They thought I was lucky that I got all the attention and said they’d trade places with me any  day. Yeah, like I wouldn’t kill for that. Eventually, I had several marine animals and plants wishing to reside in my waters. And I didn’t mind it much. I would love to have some sort of company in my waters. Then came another phase; humans began to wash clothes and their cattle in me. I mean yeah, I could handle them, they were hardly ever that dirty, but really, clothes and animals? I was just awestruck. When people washed their clothes, so much dirt was excreted. And the animals, they didn’t give a damn about the world! They’d poop all over the place. Rubbish absolutely! And don’t tell me I didn’t warn anyone, of course I tried to! If the fools are blind enough to mistake a hurricane as a sign of anger as a ‘natural disaster’, I say to Tartarus with them! And when a tourist would come by, they’d bathe in my waters too! What audacity. I bet they have plenty of fresh, clean  rivers in their country where they could bathe, why me? So I’d ask some of my water-bacteria to go and give them a prick to make them learn. And they’d go home green. And that glacier! It absolutely refuses to stop melting. Well nothing’s happening to it, but I’m getting flooded so quick that people fear living on my banks nowadays. Well I don’t mind that but . . . So I say, to everyone reading this, if you dare to come ‘purify’ your body in me, I’ll make sure that an eel wraps around your leg! Ha! So that’s that then, this is River Ganges signing off, and be sure to spread the message! I am a river. I like to give you an account of my life. You may laugh to think what is the value of the autobiography of a river. You may laugh if you like. Men write their autobiographies. They have importance in their own way. I have importance in my own way. Birth and early careerI was born long ago in an obscure place in a mountain. Several very small streams of water joined together to form one bigger stream. That is how I was born. I am that bigger stream. I am restless from my birth. I cannot stay at one place. So I flow down the mountain. I leap from one rock to another. I am full of life and vigor. As I flow down, I gather strength. My current is very strong here. I carry down with me broken rocks. At last I come down to the plains. My career in the upper plainsHere I begin to widen in my course. People begin to make use of my water. Here it is as pure as anything. In my upper course, people have built up towns of pilgrimage. They have built temples on my banks. Hundreds of people bathe in my sacred water. They worship the deities in those temples. They regard me as very sacred. There are also several health resorts in my upper course. People from many parts of the country come there for a change. They walk on my banks. They enjoy the natural beauty. They recover their lost health and return home with a happy heart. My career in the lower plainsI have said before that I am very restless. I am constantly on the move downwards. Leaving the upper plains behind I flow down through the lower plains. My water increases the fertility of the fields on either side of my banks. Abundant crops grow there. The country become prosperous. Towns on my banksPeople have built large towns on my banks. Some of these towns are centres of culture. Some have commercial importance. People carry on trade and commerce. They ply boats and steamers along my surface. These carry many important goods for trade. People travel from one place to another in boats and steamers. Hundreds of people bathe in water. They use my water for drinking and other purposes. Efforts to control meDuring the rainy season I carry large quantities of rain-water from the mountain. My surface rises. Sometimes I overflow the banks and cause flood. People suffer much. But am I to blame for this ? What can I do if huge quantities of rainwater flow down me from the mountain? Your Government has now tried to control my furious nature in the rainy season. In my upper course sometimes I fall down several hundred feet from a great height. Here your Government has built barriers across me to hold back my water. It has built dams to store up the surplus water to irrigate the land to help agriculture. Electricity is also generated here with the power of my water. This electricity is cheaper. It helps industry in towns and even in remote villages. Thus you may see how I help you. My career in the lowest courseIn this way I go on. I have no rest. Men may come and men may go, but I go on for ever. † Your Government has tried to control my furious nature. But it is a very difficult task to control me always. Sometimes I play the part of a destroyer. I wash away my banks. I destroy towns and villages. Again I play the part of a creator. I carry down sediments. These are deposited in some places where the current is not strong. New land is formed there. This land is very fertile. This is done near about the place where I join the sea. Ports at my mouthI flow on to join the sea. This is my goal. This portion of my course is called my mouth. People have built ports here. Factories have been built on my banks. This makes the country prosperous. But the factories do one great harm. In my upper course my water is very pure. But here the municipalities of the towns and the factories throw away all sorts of impurities into my water. This pollutes my water. I am not to blame for this. ConclusionThis is my life history. There is one great difference between men and me. I am constantly on the move to join the sea. Men are born and they die. I have no death. I will flow eternally. I will do great service to men. They should, therefore, remain grateful to me.

Carbonated Beverages and Dental Caries

Carbonated Beverages and Dental Caries An assessment of association between carbonated drinks consumption and dental caries prevalence: A cross-sectional study Zainab A. Sukhera[1], Syeda Mehar Raza1, Neha Rana1 and Tehreem Zafar1. Dental caries may be defined as â€Å"a bacterial disease of the hard tissues of the teeth characterized by demineralization of the inorganic and destruction of the organic substance of tooth†.(1) It is the most prevalent oral disease worldwide.(2) It is a multi-factorial disease caused by the interaction of three principal factors; a susceptible host tissue, cariogenic micro flora and diet.(3, 4) Diet especially refined sugars, is an important etiological factor of dental caries. Both the frequency and the total amount of refined sugars consumed play a significant part in the etiology of caries. â€Å"The evidence establishing sugars as an etiological factor in dental caries is overwhelming†.(5) Sugars are mostly contained in manufactured food and beverages and form an essential component of human diet.(6) Most carbonated beverages contain up to 10 tea-spoons of sugar per 12 oz. as opposed to 1-2 tea-spoons in fruit juices.(4, 7) Despite the differences in carbohydrate content, both seem to have similar cariogenic potential.(8) In addition to the high amounts of sugar, carbonated beverages also contain phosphoric, citric and carbonic acids which show a deleterious effect on enamel.(9, 10) Caffeine, which makes up a considerable portion of carbonated beverages, is a mildly stimulant drug and it may contribute to the tendency for frequent consumption of such beverages. All the aforementioned factors are responsible towards the rapid initiation and progression of caries.(11) Diet drinks which use artificial sweeteners instead of refined sugars have been popularly used in order to reduce the caloric content. Although diet drinks are considered less cariogenic than regular beverages, their greater erosive ability and the use of artificial sweeteners do not make them a healthier alternative. (12) The Aim of this Cross-sectional study was to assess the association between prevalence of dental caries and carbonated drink consumption in a population of 12 to 19 years old children from Islamabad and Rawalpindi. Materials and Methods: A questionnaire-based cross-sectional study was conducted at the Islamic International Dental Hospital, Islamabad during the month of June. The study comprised a questionnaire survey followed by a visual oral examination. Sample: The participants comprised a convenience sample of 12-19 years old adolescents who were visiting the hospital at any time during 16th to 20th June. 1st year BDS students who fell in the above mentioned age bracket were also included in the sample. The participants were mostly residents of Islamabad and Rawalpindi. Sample size was chosen to be 50. Verbal consent was obtained from each participant and his/her guardian beforehand. Questionnaire: A questionnaire was completed through a face-to-face interview with each participant which helped in achieving a 100% response rate. The Questionnaire consisted of three sections. Section A dealt with the oral hygiene habits and the beverage consumption habits of participants. In Question 1, the frequency of intake of different beverages was recorded by using a scale of 5 values; Never, Rarely, Once a week, 1 glass daily and 2 or more glasses daily. In the next set of questions, the participants were asked about (Q2) their preferred time of drink consumption (at mealtimes or between meals); (Q3) their preference of either regular or diet drinks and (Q4) the use of straw. Questions 5-7 assessed their oral hygiene knowledge. Section B dealt with the socio-demographic details and section C recorded the DMFT score of each participant. Clinical Examination: After the interview, each participant was orally examined by a 2nd year BDS student. The examination took place under a tube-light with the participant seated in a normal chair. No mouth mirror or CPI probe was used to assist in the diagnosis of caries. Only a tongue depressor was utilized by the examiner. The severity of caries was assessed via the DMFT index. A tooth was considered decayed (D) if a carious lesion was visibly appreciated; missing (M) if extracted due to caries and filled (F) if a restoration was seen. A restored tooth with recurrent decay was also counted as (D).(13) Data Analysis: Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 17.0 was used to enter, organize and analyze the data. The effect of different variables; frequency and time of consumption of drinks, demographic factors and oral hygiene habits on the DMFT scores of participants was analyzed by deriving frequencies, means and standard deviations. Results: Results were obtained for the sample of 50 participants by analyzing the data from their completed questionnaires and dental examinations. The sample included 19 males (38%) and 31 females (62%). Out of the total number of participants, 15 (30%) were from the age group of 12-14 years, 14 (28%) from the 15-17 years group and 21 (42%) from the 18-19 years age group. Table 1 displays the number and percentages of participants in relation to beverage consumption and their sociodemographic details. In terms of daily consumption, milk and juices were the most popular drinks (n=35, 70%), while carbonated drinks were consumed by only 17 (34%) participants on a daily basis. In the younger age group of 12-14 years, 93% (n=14) preferred carbonated beverages whereas, coffee and juices were the main preferences of the other two groups (15-17 years, 18-19 years) being consumed by 100% (n=14) and 95% (n=20) of the participants respectively. Table 1: Frequency distribution of different types of drinks as per consumption frequency and sociodemographic factors. (n=number) Table 2 illustrates the prevalence and severity of dental caries in relation to different types of beverages consumed. Among the participants who consumed juices, 68% (n=32) had caries in contrast to the 62% (28) who consumed carbonated drinks. Caries severity for carbonated drinks was highest with almost 7% (n=3) participants having recorded DMFT of more than 4. Table 2: Prevalence and severity of dental caries in relation to consumption of different beverages. (n= total number of consumers of a particular drink. Percentage frequencies are given in brackets) Table 3 shows the effect of different variables on DMFT score including time of consumption of carbonated drinks, use of straw, drink type, oral hygiene habits and demographic details. Around 56% (n=28) of participants reported consuming carbonated drinks at mealtimes. However, their DMFT score was unexpectedly higher than those who consumed their carbonated drinks between meals (36%, n=18). Diet drinks were preferred by only 4% (n=2) of the participants and their caries experience was low as compared to those who consumed regular drinks (94%, n=47). According to the findings, 30% (n=15) of participants used a straw during consumption and had a much lower DMFT score of 1.07 ( ±1.22) in contrast to the 1.76 ( ±1.82) score for those who did not use a straw (n=34, 68%). Frequency of brushing showed a significant effect on the DMFT score by decreasing it with each increase in frequency. In terms of gender, mean DMFT score of females was higher (1.77 ±1.76) than that of males (1.31 ±1.60). Among the three age-groups, the 15-17 year age group showed a slightly higher caries experience than the other two groups. Table 3: Effect of carbonated drink related variables and demographic factors on mean DMFT score. Mean DMFT of the sample was 1.60  ± 1.702. Table 4 and Figure 1 illustrate the frequency percentage of each component of DMFT Index i.e. of Decayed (D), Missing (M) and Filled (F) in the study sample. Out of the total DMFT score of 80, ‘Decayed’ component had the highest frequency percentage (n=60, 75%), followed by ‘Filled’ (n=17, 21%) and ‘Missing’ (n=3, 4%) components, respectively. Table 4: Distribution frequencies of Decayed (D), Missing (M) and Filled (F) components in the whole sample as well as of the cumulative DMFT. Figure 1: Distribution of each component of DMFT in the sample. Figure 2 illustrates the relation of frequency of carbonated drink consumption with mean DMFT scores of participants. Participants who â€Å"Never† consumed carbonated drinks had a mean DMFT score of 2. Whereas, participants who consumed carbonated drinks â€Å"rarely†, â€Å"once a week† or â€Å"one glass daily† had mean DMFT of 1, 1.52 and 1.92 respectively. â€Å"1.60† was the recorded mean DMFT of those who consumed two or more glasses of carbonated drinks daily. Figure 2: Bar chart illustrating frequency of carbonated drink consumption per mean DMFT scores. Discussion: A strong association between carbonated beverages and dental caries has been indicated by many previous studies (11, 14-16) while a few indicate a much weaker association.(17, 18) We assessed this hypothesis by conducting a cross-sectional study in a sample of 50 participants from Islamabad and Rawalpindi. The results from our study found no association between carbonated drink consumption and dental caries experience. Those participants who had ‘Never’ consumed carbonated drinks showed the highest mean DMFT. Caries prevalence and caries severity in relation to carbonated drink consumption was high, and similar to that for juices indicating similar cariogenicity.(8, 19) Mean DMFT of those who consumed carbonated drinks ‘at mealtimes’ was surprisingly greater than of those who consumed ‘between meals’; a direct contrast with a previous study from Slater P. et al.(20) Results from the current study showed that the mean DMFT decreased with the use of a straw during consumption. This is in accordance with a study by Tahmassebi et al. which proved that if juices were consumed through a straw, there was a less pronounced pH drop in plaque.(21) Since carbonated beverages and juices possess similar cariogenic potential, the same situation might be true for carbonated beverages. Oral hygiene (frequency of tooth-brushing) had a strong effect on dental caries experience. DMFT was highest for those who did not brush daily and lowest for those who brushed thrice a day. This pattern is in congruity with the fact that despite the intake of sugary drinks, oral health is an important factor in the etiology of dental caries especially with the advent of fluoridated toothpastes.(22) Mean DMFT of females was found to be higher than that of males. This may be due to the uneven distribution of males (38%) and females (62%) in our study sample or it may also indicate that dental caries is statistically dependent on gender to some extent, as proven by earlier studies.(3) Relation of social status with beverage consumption patterns, oral hygiene, DMFT etc. could not be derived because of an error in the designed questionnaire. To check the social status of participants, we added the option of â€Å"Occupation† but neglected to specify whose occupation we were asking for i.e., of the guardian/parent or of the participant. This lead to a confusion on both the participants’ and the interviewers’ part resulting in incorrect information to be recorded on the forms. Mean DMFT of the sample was found to be slightly greater than that reported by WHO in 2003.(23) The ‘Decayed’ portion formed a major component of the overall DMFT score, followed by the ‘Filled’ and ‘Missing’ components, indicating that majority of the children do not undergo treatment due to various reasons e.g. high costs of treatment, negligence to oral heath etc. This trend was also observed in a cross-sectional study carried in Karachi.(24) Study Limitations: It is necessary here to discuss the limitations faced in our study. We employed a cross-sectional design in determining the beverage intake patterns and oral health conditions of the participants. However, use of cross-sectional data to establish cause (carbonated beverages)-and-effect (dental caries) relationship does not draw valid conclusions. Longitudinal study design should therefore, have been employed.(24, 25) Furthermore, the questionnaire that we used in our study did not provide detailed information regarding fluid intake patterns (e.g. of water).(15) Sample size and sampling technique used in our study was inadequate to cover the characteristics of the whole population of Islamabad and Rawalpindi.(26) Protocols for determining the carious lesions(27) were not strictly followed during the dental examinations. For example, a CPI probe and mouth mirror was not employed to assist in the diagnosis of caries. Radiographs were also not used during the examinations. The probability of surface stains being counted as carious lesions therefore, cannot be eliminated. Conclusion: No association was found between carbonated beverages consumption and dental caries through our findings. Dental caries was found to be associated with various other factors such as oral hygiene, methods and time of beverage consumption, gender, age, etc. Further research studies, particularly of longitudinal design, should be carried out are before any conclusive results can be derived. A more detailed dietary questionnaire should be employed to ascertain the complete dietary patterns of an individual throughout the day. Following guidelines should be followed while consuming carbonated or any other cariogenic beverages.(12) Drinks should ideally be consumed at meal times and via a straw to minimize direct contact with teeth. They should not be swirled or swished in the mouth. Tooth brushing immediately after consumption should be avoided. 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